2. BODY PROPORTIONS OF THE SACRED FIGURES
THE ORIGIN OF THE ART OF PAINTING AND SCULPTING IMAGES
This history of how
images were first constructed deals with both painted and sculpted
forms.
Our first topic is how
the first painted image came into being. Previously in this world,
when the lifespans of men were decreasing from one hundred thousand
years, a king of men known as “Fear-subduer” ruled his kingdom in
accordance with the highest norms; and owing to that, men’s
lifespans were increased and their lives were filled with happiness.
Through the king’s practices of asceticism the gods blessed him with
the attainments of great power and wisdom, and with the highest gift
of peace, so that weapons and war could not penetrate into the world
of men.
One of that king’s
subjects, a Brahmin, had a particularly son dear. When that
son died the Brahmin said to the king, “It is widely renowned that
through your power all men dwell in happiness. But you have
committed a certain error and have not watched over your kingdom
faultlessly. The Lord of Death has robbed me of my son, and if
you do not return him to me I will kill myself.”
Having heard that, the
king took the Brahmin to the presence of Yama, King of the Dead, and
repeating the account of his accusation, ordered him to give back
the boy. Yama replied that the boy’s life-supporting deeds had
exhausted themselves. Words were exchanged back and forth, and
at last a fight ensued between the king of humans and the king of
the dead.
Using divine weapons,
the king of men vanquished the host of Yama. Finally Yama,
bearing a staff, and the king, brandishing a staff atop of which was
the head of Brahma, made battle. When this was transpiring and
the whole world had been cast into terror, the god Brahma appeared
and said, “When one’s deeds are exhausted, even Yama is not to
blame. Nevertheless, draw a picture of the Brahmin’s son, just
as he was.” Then the king drew that picture. Brahma
blessed it to become a really existent boy, and gave the boy to the
Brahmin.
That king became known
as “King Naked-subduer”, because he vanquished Yama, king of the
naked hungry-spirits. And because he was the painter of the
original picture, he became known as the “first artist.”
Following the command of Brahma, the king bowed and worshiped Yama,
and all became pleased at heart. Afterwards the king went to
the abode of Brahma. There the king asked Brahma how to paint
pictures and Brahma replied with the verses:
“The king of peaks is Sumeru.
Of all those beings born from eggs,
Soaring Garuda ranks as chief.
Of men, the best is king on earth;
Of arts, pictorial is chief.”
And with verses such as
the following one, he set it forth in great detail:
“O king, all of the arts and skills
Depend upon the graphic art.”
The history of painting
began at that time. Concerning the representations of the
Great Teacher’s bodily form in the religion of the Omniscient
Buddha, painted sacred images antedated those that were sculpted.
Moreover, the first such painted image was the one which Bimbisāra,
king of the city Rājgrha, sent to Udrāyana, king of Roruka.
Even though those two kings lived at a great distance from one
another, sight unseen they struck up a very cordial relationship.
In the reciprocal exchange of gifts, once Udrāyana sent Bimbisāra a
priceless jeweled suit of full-body armor. King Bimbisāra, in
his difficulty in finding a reply to that gift, ordered some artists
to draw the form of the Buddha. Trying to do so, the artists
could not but gaze insatiably at the Blessed One’s form, totally
enchanted, and they were unable to ascertain his measurements.
But then the Buddha seated himself by the bank of a body of water,
and they made a copy from his reflection in the water. The
picture they made, having a representation of interdependent
origination beneath, is famed as the one “taken from water”.
That image the king incased in layers of gold, silver and copper.
Swathing it in cloth, he lifted it atop the back of an elephant and
sent ahead the message, “I am dispatching to you the gift which is
the greatest of the great in the three-fold universe. You
should go out to greet it at a distance of two and one-half
leagues.” Accordingly, Udrāyana went out to receive it, and
when, in an extensive open area, the couriers revealed that image,
the traders of Magadha let loose the cry, “Obeisance to the Buddha!”
Immediately upon hearing the sound of the Buddha’s name, the hairs
of the king’s body stood on end, and he inquired, “O wise ones, who
is He who is called the Buddha?” They replied, “Lord, it was
said of a scion of the Sakyas that should he not renounce the world
he would become the universal emperor, but should he enter religious
life, he would become enlightened. This is the bodily image of
that very Buddha.”
As soon as he beheld
that image, the king was filled with happiness, and that evening as
he coursed forwards and backwards over the links of interdependent
origination, the king, being wise and of fortunate endowments,
perceived the truth. Later he sent to king Bimbisāra the
message, “Since owing to you I have put an end to the round of
births, now I desire to see some fully ordained monks.” King
Bimbisāra related that message to the Blessed One, and Noble
Katyayana, with a following of five hundred, was dispatched.
They were welcomed by king Udrāyana, who spread the Doctrine by
means of erecting five hundred temples and many other pious deeds.
Concerning the history
of how the second painted Buddha image originated, it was produced
through the Buddha’s action of projecting his radiance onto a cloth,
and that image was sent to Pearly Vined One, daughter of the king of
Singhala. Once some merchants of Sravasti went to the island
of Singhala and were speaking of the Buddha. The king’s
daughter, Pearly Vined One, heard the sound of the Buddha’s name and
faith arose in her. She respectfully composed a letter to the
Blessed Teacher, which the merchants on their return conveyed to the
Buddha. In reply, the Buddha emanated rays of light on the
surface of a cloth in such a way that a picture resulted. That
icon produced through the impression of that form upon the cloth’s
surface had extremely pure features. Through the Buddha’s
bestowing it, together with a message, to the princess, she
perceived the truth. Afterwards she sent three great measures
of pearls to the Great Teacher as an offering, which the Buddha
divided among himself, the Dharma, and the Sangha. From that
time forth, wherever the Victorious One’s doctrine has spread, the
great tradition of painting icons on cloth has also widely
flourished.
The first sculptured
sacred image was the image called the Sandalwood Lord. In the
city from which the Buddha had gone to the god-sphere to teach his
mother, that city’s king, ministers, and retainers had a great
desire to erect as an object of worship an image built of sandalwood
that would resemble the body of the real Great Teacher.
Through the magical powers of the Buddha’s disciple Maudgalyayana,
an artisan was transported to the god-sphere where he fixed in his
mind the exact shape of the Buddha’s body and then returned.
Then in that city, which was known as Gsal-Idan, he made a lifelike
image of the Blessed Teacher in a standing posture, with a brightly
shining jewel on the front of the protuberance on the crown of his
head, and marked with a wheel on his hands and feet. It was an
image without any visible disharmony or imperfection. Later,
when the Blessed One returned from the divine sphere by descending
the jewel ladder miraculously projected by the god, Visvakarma, the
sandalwood image at Gsal-Idan itself took six steps forward, going
to greet the Buddha. That famous image is now in China,
remaining there for the welfare of beings. From it an
embroidered replica was also made, called the “Ze’u-thang”, about
which there is more to be said, but our cursory sketch of the
history of sculpture ends here.
Here in Tibet the
traditions of painting and sculpting images flourished greatly
through the kindness of great Bodhisattvas such as the three great
religious kings of the past. Concerning particularly the
stylistic traditions of painted images, one tradition based upon the
Buddha’s image at Bodhgaya, which possessed the measurements He had
at age twenty-five, existed in India, Nepal and elsewhere. Yet
because it was mostly the artists of Nepal who upheld this painting
tradition, it was called Nepalese style (bal bris), and this
tradition came to be widespread in Tibet.
Later in Tibet there was
a master artist named Bkra-shis-rgyal-po, who had a student even
greater than himself. This great disciple was named
Sman-lha-don-grub. When Sman-lha-don-grub was born at
Sman-thang in Lho-brag region of Tibet, there was also discovered a
native vermillion deposit at Lho-brag. In his childhood he
mastered grammar and poetry, and the scripts of many different
languages such as Lancara, Wartu, Darika and Tibetan. He was
believed to be the embodiment of Manjushri, the Bodhisattva of
Wisdom. Becoming disgusted with the life of a householder, he
set off upon a wandering existence. In the course of his
roving from place to place, once at Stag-lung in Yar-‘brog he came
upon a brush and brush case, together with some examples of
painting. Beginning from that time he devoted himself wholly
to painting, and he went to such places as Gtsang and Sakya in
search of master painters of religious subjects. Once he
chanced to see the Chinese embroidered tapestry called the “Ze’u-thang,”
which he himself had created in a previous lifetime when born as a
Chinese artist. By the mere sight of it he recollected his
previous lifetime, and in that way there arose very vividly in his
mind the pictures of a style which closely resembled a Chinese type
of painting. In addition, conforming with the doctrines of
many schools of painting, as well as following the teachings of the
Kālacakra Tantra and the Commentary on the Root Tantra of
Cakrasamvara, he composed the text called Sku gzugs kyi cha
tshad kyi rab tu byed pa yid bzhin nor bu (The Wish Granting Jewel:
A Treatise on the Dimensions of Religious Images), in which he
systematically expounded the following seven topics: 1) A statement
of the major marks and minor characteristics of the Tathāgata, 2)
Refutation of the basic formulations of incorrect opinions, 3)
Explanation of the faults of imperfect measurements, 4) Basic
formulation of what constitutes proper dimensions, 5) Statement of
the virtues of proper dimensions, 6) Desired characteristics of both
artist and patron, and 7) A detailed explanation of the practical
steps used in painting.
Further, in the time of
Kun-dga'-rnam-rgyal, there came to the Gong-dkar Rdo-rje-gdan
monastic center from Sgang-stod a great figure known as Sprul-sku
Mkhyen-brtse-chen-po. Because of slight differences between
his painting style and that of Sman-lha-dron-grub, there came about
a painting style which was named Mkhyen-style (mkhyen bris)
after him.
Besides those, there was
also a famous artist called Sprul-sku Byi'u-chung who was born in
Yar-stod. Through his great diligence in the study of
painting, he clung inseparably to his pages of examples and his
drawing board. Because he flitted about from place to place in
search of fine painting styles and examples of fine art, there was
said something to the effect that “This incarnate lama is not
different from a little bird”, and on that account he was named
“Byi’u” or “Little Bird”. The painting style he developed was
a little different from those descended from Sman-lha-don-grub and
Mkhyen-brtse.
Also, I have heard that
from the area of Mtshur-phu there originated an artistic tradition
famed as the school of the three masters named Bkra-shis. That
style is nowadays widely known as the painting style of the Karma
encampment (Karma sgar bris). It is dissimilar to the
above styles and it has gradually become very widespread.
The relationship of
sculpted sacred images to painted ones is that the circumference of
a sculpted image measures three times the width of a painted image.
In accordance with the
words of Maitreyanātha, “Without bringing to mastery the five fields
of knowledge, even the Supremely Holy Ones will not attain the state
of Buddhahood.” Hence almost all the exalted beings in the
past have attained self-sufficient mastery in the five fields of
knowledge. I myself have witnessed the signs of such mastery
come to fruition, in having seen many times on the back side of old
thangkas where great saints have acknowledged their authorship.
Therefore, if one should carefully scrutinize the supremely
wonderful and correct paintings of the renowned great saints and
masters it is certain that one would find further characteristic
styles besides those of the above traditions. But the four
above-mentioned traditions that are widespread in Tibet are held to
be the fundamental ones.
BODY PROPORTIONS OF THE SACRED FIGURES
Buddhas, whether
manifesting as the highest emanation-body (nirmanakaya) or as
the peaceful enjoyment-body (sambhogakāya), iconmetrically
are in the ten face-unit class, one unit of which measures twelve
and one half finger-widths. Bodhisattvas are also in the ten
face-unit class, but in their case each face-unit is one, half
finger-width shorter, each face-unit measuring only twelve
finger-widths. Thus Bodhisattvas are five finger-widths
shorter in total length than the Buddhas. Female beings such
as the Great Mother or goddesses are in the nine-span class, while
wrathful deities are in the eight-span class, and dwarfed ones are
in the class of six spans. Generally speaking, the above
classes of body measures form the basis from which Buddhist
iconometry is to be taught.
To begin with, one must
know that what we term a “face-unit” or “span” is divided into
twelve finger-widths. This is the general case, and once
explained it is easily understood. Each twelfth part of a
face-unit or large-segment is called one finger-width. One
fourth of a finger-width is called a “leg”, and one-half of a leg is
named a “grain”, eight of which, of course, equal a finger-width and
two of which equal a leg.
Here let us begin by
using as our first example the instance of the form of a standing
Tathāgata, such as that of the Supreme Teacher, King of the Sākyas.
Having first fixed the straight vertical axis, which is the exact
middle of the figure, its length is divided from top to bottom into
the following segments: the protuberance on the crest of the head
measures four finger-widths; from its base to the hair line, four
and one-half finger-widths; from the hair-line to the
“hair-treasury” (ūrna) between the eyebrows, and from that to
the tip of the nose, four finger-widths each; and from there to the
chin, four and one-half finger-widths. The neck measures four
finger-widths long, while the chest, stomach, and lower abdomen are
each twelve and one-half finger-widths long. Hence the upper
half of the body measures sixty-two and one-half small segments.
Likewise, continuing downwards, the hips measure four finger-widths,
the thighs measure twenty-five finger-widths, the knees are four
finger-widths long, the lower part of the legs measures twenty-five
finger-widths, and the foot itself is four and one-half
finger-widths high, so that the bottom half of the body also
measures sixty-two and one-half finger-widths. Therefore, the
sum of both halves of the body’s length is one hundred and
twenty-five finger-widths.
The width of the body is
likewise sixty-two and one-half finger-widths for each side of the
body. The individual measures are: From the vertical
center axis to the armpit, twelve and one-half finger-widths;
continuing, the upper part of the arm from shoulder to elbow is
twenty finger-widths long. The forearm measures sixteen
finger-widths; the hand, twelve finger-widths; and also there are
measurements of one finger-width each at both the wrist and elbow
joints. Each half of the body thus measures sixty-two and
one-half finger-widths, and the sum of both sides is a total width
of one hundred and twenty-five finger-widths.
For a Buddha seated with
legs folded in the vajra-posture (vajrasana), the main lines
of the iconometric grid are as follows: Beginning with the
first horizontal line at the top of the central vertical axis and
counting downwards, further horizontal lines are drawn at intervals
of two finger-widths, four finger-widths, four finger-widths, one
face-unit, four finger-widths, one face-unit, one face-unit, four
finger-widths, eight finger-widths, four finger-widths and four
finger-widths, making a total of twelve horizontal lines. The
intervals between the lines are: The crest-jewel, the head
protuberance, the scalp down to the hair line, the face, neck,
chest, stomach, side of hip, the thigh/pubic zone, the junction of
the crossed legs, and the lowest extension of the knees. The
other vertical lines in the iconometric grid are placed to the right
and left of the central vertical axis at intervals of one face-unit,
four finger-widths, two finger-widths, and eight finger-widths,
making a total of nine vertical lines. The first line
corresponds to the armpit, (the second line is not important at this
point), the third line delimits the shoulder’s outer edge, and
finally the outermost line indicates the outer extent of the knees.
This completes the description of the vertical lines.
The bodily form of the
Blessed Teacher, the Buddha, is in the class of ten “palms” or
face-units. Regarding that measurement, it must be remembered
that, as explained above, the total length exceeds by five
finger-widths the measure of ten standard face-units. The
foregoing has been an explanation of the measurements for the
Buddha’s emanation-body (nirmanakaya) manifestations; all
such Great Ordained Ones who are freed from passion wear the three
monastic robes and possess special signs and characteristics.
The artist must fix those attributes in his mind and reproduce as
beautifully as possible whatever of them are suitable for artistic
depiction. Also, the bodily dimensions of Buddhas manifesting
as the enjoyment-body (sambhogakaya), possessing the regalia
of the universal emperor, are identical to the above. The
differences relate only to such things as ornamentation. One
difference of note is regarding their head protuberances.
Because the enjoyment-body manifestation’s head-protuberance is
bound up within the upper half of his hair which is tied upwards in
a top-knot, here the head-protuberance has no separate measurement,
but according to tradition the top-knot would be fifteen
finger-widths tall, or else the top-knot should extend one face-unit
above the head-protuberance. However, because it is slightly
unbecoming if excessively long, expert artists hold that the
top-knot may be eight finger-widths long, the crest-jewel three
finger-widths long, and the jewel diadem six finger-widths in
length. In addition, the enjoyment-body should be decorated
with thirteen jewel ornaments, and so forth.
The second major
proportion is the measurement of Manjushri and the other
Bodhisattvas. This measurement is exactly the same as that of
the Tathāgatas, except that each “palm” or face-unit is shorter by
one-half of a small-segment. Hence each face-unit equals
twelve finger-widths, and since the total measurement is ten
face-units, it is easy to see that the total finger-widths in their
measure is one hundred and twenty.
The third major
proportion is the measurement of the Great Mothers. They are
explained as being in the nine-span class because the length and
breadth of the mandala goddesses’ bodies, such as that of Holy Tara,
measure nine spans. More specifically, the dimensions are the
same as those of the above (Bodhisattva) class, measuring one
hundred and twenty finger-widths, except for the following
differences. The area above the hairline on the skull and also
the area of the neck are each one small-segment shorter than those
of the above Bodhisattvas. Since there is no four finger-width
head-protuberance as in the above class, the length of the upper
part of the body from the crest of the head to the base of the spine
is four and one half spans. Also, in the lower half of the
body, four finger-widths are subtracted from the thigh and calf
together, and one finger-width each are subtracted from both the
knee and the top of the foot. Thus, from the base of the spine
to the soles of the feet, the lower half of the body measures four
and one-half spans, and hence one can see that the full length of
the body is a total of one hundred and eight finger-widths.
One can also understand that the extent of the body’s breadth is
equal to the above because two finger-widths are subtracted from
each of the forearms, upper arms, and sides of the chest.
The foreheads of the
goddesses should be narrow, the shoulders high, and the muscular
parts of the arms, as well as the throat, should be thin. The
breasts should be full and the eyes should be widely spaced and
looking askance. However, all of the above characteristics
must be avoided when depicting males. Goddesses such as
Vajravārāhī should be painted in a slightly wrathful mien, and while
the length of the central axis from the hairline to the soles of the
feet is ninety-seven finger-widths, the breadth of the body is the
same as above. Concerning that body length, there is no real
lessening in the length of the body from the first-mentioned one
hundred and eight finger-widths, but because of the haughty, askew
stance, eleven finger-widths are concealed from view.
The fourth major
proportion is the measure of the wrathful ones such as Yaksas and
Angry Yama, the class measuring eight face-units. With respect to
the dimensions of this class of violent beings, the measures of
their actual bodies are taught as being only six face-units,
although the seat beneath them and their hair each measure one
face-unit, thus putting them in the eight-“palm” class. The
height of such a being’s foot is four finger-widths, and in a
straight, erect stance the bottom half of the leg measures eighteen
finger-widths but in the proud stance with limbs askew, their
vertical measure is only one span. The knees measure four
finger-widths, and even thought the hips are explained as being
eighteen finger-widths long, in the awry stance of haughtiness the
thighs are in the same vertical area as the pubic zone, which is
here covered by a distended belly. In that way, from the base
of the spine up to the neck, the torso measures three spans.
The neck measures four finger-widths, and the face and hair measure
one span each.
This completes the
description of the body’s length. As for its breadth, the
chest measures one face-unit wide to either side of the vertical
axis, the upper arm measures twelve finger-widths in length, and the
forearm and hand each measure one face-unit. Fierce deities
possess frightful and unlovely bodies. Consequently, it is not
necessary that their bodies conform to the requisite signs and
characteristics of peaceful deities. It is explained that
their bodies need not be, for example, the same measure in both
length and width; rather, their bodies should be squat and rotund.
The fifth major
proportion is the measure of the dwarfed ones such as Pancaranatha.
From top to bottom their measures are: the shaggy mane of hair, one
face-unit; the face, one face-unit; the neck, four finger-widths;
the chest and stomach, one face-unit each; the thighs and lower part
of the leg, eight finger-widths each; and the feet themselves, four
finger-widths.
Besides this, there is
also a slightly different measure for figures such as Ganesa.
The dimensions of such figures are as follows: the skull above
the hairline measures three finger-widths; the face, one
large-segment; the neck, three finger-widths; the chest, one
large-segment; the abdomen, one large-segment; the thigh, one
large-segment; the knee, three finger-widths; the lower leg, one
large–segment; and the foot, three finger-widths. Figures such
as Rāhu and the Great Nāga fit into the above proportional grid,
from their main face down. However, the upper face of Rāhu and
the serpent hood of the Nāga are not within the framework of the
proportions, and hence concerning them the artist must exercise his
own discretion. Beneath their stomachs there are hips
measuring three finger-widths, and beneath these there should be
drawn a snake tail measuring two face-units and three finger-widths
in length.
In the case of
Bhutadāmara, the face, excluding the part of the head above the
hairline, measures one span, the torso measures one span, and from
the bottom of the torso to the feet there is also the distance of
one span. Thus, the total vertical length is only three spans,
his body being distorted in the manner of strutting haughtily.
Examples also exist where the total body length of a deity is eleven
spans, such as in the case of the “Cycle of Eight Risen Corpses” (Ro
langs brgyad skor).
Humans such as the
immediate disciples of the Lord Buddha, as well as ordinary men, all
have a bodily length of four cubits. The area of the skull
above the hairline measures four finger-widths, their face is one
span long, the measure of their neck is four finger-widths, their
chest, stomach and lower abdomen are one span each, the thighs are
eighteen widths, the lower legs are eighteen finger-widths long, and
the feet themselves are three finger-widths high. However, the
texts also prescribe that the neck be two finger-widths long, and it
is all right if done so. If done in the former manner, the
length of the skull above the hairline becomes about two
finger-widths too long. The Self-enlightened Ones (pratyekabuddha)
are as above except that they are slightly taller than ordinary
humans since they possess a small head-protuberance. Physical
representations of one’s immediate spiritual teachers should have
dimensions like those of the Buddha; so past masters have enjoined.
The different ways in
which the figures sit or stand include the following foot postures:
The vajra-posture, the lotus-posture, the sattva-posture, the
sitting posture of the hero, the sitting posture of an excellent
one, squatting, reveling to the left, reveling to the right,
possessing excellent bliss, right foot extended, left foot extended,
sa-ga, rounded, and standing with both feet the same.
There are also many distinct hand gestures, such as the mudra of
highest enlightenment. For ordained ones there are special
accouterments such as the three monastic robes; and also for the
fully-ordained monks such pieces of equipment as the begging staff,
begging bowl and so on. These must be drawn according to the
measures and forms prescribed in the Vinaya for their large,
medium, or small sizes. There are many varieties of ornaments
for each of the fierce and peaceful deities. Besides that,
there are extensive, medium and abbreviated versions of thrones and
backdrops, with their own measures and shapes. Also, in the
tantras there are taught the measures of the lines for each mandala,
and the sizes and characteristics of the fireplace (used in homa
rituals) for achieving each of the respective types of activities,
and so forth. As regards these and all other aspects of
religious art, one should devote great efforts to accomplishing
them, following the authentic teachings of the Buddha’s word and the
treatises of his enlightened followers. The faults of
deviating from these correct dimensions and also the virtues of
adhering to them are both stated in the scriptures in many places.
Yet to summarize, quoting from the
Sdom pa byung ba’i ‘grel ba (Cakrasamvara Tantra Commentary):
“A sacred image that
possesses the required characteristics, that has the qualities of
peacefulness and so forth, and is beautified by its measurements and
exact proportions, will become imbued with transcendent awareness.
In this world, deficient measures and proportions in image making
will cause illness, death, loss of wealth and separation from near
ones. But an image which is perfect in every detail is the
best thing for pacifying all such evils. A sacred image that
possesses the correct dimensions, and is neither insufficient nor
excessive, may be worshipped. The deity will approach a sacred
image that has the true nature of the deity’s body and shape,
possesses a compassionate and disportive mien, and is endowed with
the correct base color.”
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Geshe
Tsultrim's Hand Painted Thangka |
